Block Diagram Of A Communication System Computer Science Essay

The room access to the presents wireless communicating systems was opened by Guglielmo Marconi when he transmitted the three-dot Morse codification for alphabet ‘ S ‘ by the usage of electromagnetic moving ridges over a 3-KM nexus in 1895. This laid the foundation of modern communicating systems runing from broadcast medium, satellite transmittal and wireless finally come oning to presents cell phones. It would n't be incorrect to state that wireless communicating has so revolutionized our present society A sudden addition has been observed in the enlargement of wireless systems during the last two decennaries. We have seen great development in Wireless communicating systems from 1G narrowband parallel systems in the 1980s to the 2G narrowband digital systems in the 1990s. Now the bing 3G broadband multimedia systems are being deployed. In the interim, research and advancement in the future-generation wideband multimedia wireless systems is smartly being pursued worldwide. To link nomadic users to the populace switched web the United States introduced foremost radiotelephone service by the terminal of the fortiess. Improved Mobile Telephone Service was launched by Bell Systems in 1960s due to which tonss of betterments like direct dialing and addition in bandwidth took topographic point. IMTS formed the bases of the first parallel cellular systems. The term cellular was used due to the fact that coverage countries were disconnected cells, they had a low power sender and receiving system.BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEMFigure 1. Block diagram of a general communicating system.ANALOG vs. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMSDefinition of DigitalA method of hive awaying, processing and conveying information through the usage of distinguishable electronic or optical pulsations that represent the binary figures 0 and 1.Advantages of Digitallow-cost dependable Easy to pull strings Flexible Compatible with other digital systems The information in digital signifier can merely be transmitted without any debasement through a noisy channel Incorporated websDisadvantages of DigitalSampling Mistake As compared to analogue, larger bandwidth is required in digital communications for the transmittal of the same information. Synchronism in the communications system is required to acknowledge the digital signals, but this is non the instance with linear systems.Definition of AnalogueAnalogue is a transmittal criterion that uses electrical urges to emulate the audio wave form of sound. When you use a phone, the fluctuations in your voice are transformed by a mike into similar fluctuations in an electrical signal and carried down the line to the exchange.Advantages of Analogueless bandwidth is required More AccurateDisadvantages of AnalogueSignal loss and deformation can be seen due to the effects of random noise which is impossible to retrieveGENERATIONS OF CELLULAR SYSTEMSThe construct of cellular telephone was introduced in AMPS, abruptly for Advanced Mobile Phone Systems. AMPS divided the entire country into little parts called cells and this was from where the construct of cellular telephone started. Cellular Systems had many advantages such as they increased quality, capacity, dependability and handiness of nomadic telephone web. The coevalss of cellular systems are described below.FIRST GENERATION CELLULAR SYSTEMSFirst coevals cellular telephone systems were introduced in 1980 ‘s. They were based on Analog Frequency Modulation technique. Each channel was assigned a exclusive frequence. First coevals cellular systems offered merely wireless voice services based on parallel engineering. Digital signals were merely used for control information such as dialing a figure etc. These systems were no able to get by with the increasing demands of users besides they had really less capacity and provided hapless voice quality. Some first coevalss systems are Advanced Mobile Telephone System, AMPS NAMPS, AMPS Entire Access Cellular System ( TACS ) Nordic Mobile Telephone System ( NMT-900 )Second GENERATION CELLULAR SYSTEMSSecond Generation Cellular Systems provided larger capacity and provided much better services to users compared to first coevals systems. They were based upon Digital Modulation technique which led to great sweetening in web ‘s capacity. Second Generation Systems used multiple entree techniques such as TDMA and FDMA. The biggest draw back of Second Generation Systems was that its different systems were non compatible with each other. Therefore rolling between different systems was non possible. Some of Second Generation Systems are North American Digital Cellular, NADC Global System for Mobile Communication, GSM Pacific Digital Cellular, PDC CDMAONE, IS-95 CDMA In order to get the better of Second Generation compatibility job with increased information rates of modern cyberspace applications, 2.5 Coevals criterions were developed. The best thing about them was that they allowed already bing Second Generation systems to be upgraded so that they can be used for higher information rate transmittal. 2.5 Generation brought a new revolution in cellular telephone by back uping services like high velocity cyberspace and location based nomadic services. Some of 2.5 Generation Mobile Systems are General Packet Radio Service, GPRS Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution, EDGEThird GENERTAION CELLULAR SYSTEMSDesigned to supply high quality and high capacity in informations communicating, Third Generation Systems require sophisticated spreading and transition techniques. Third Generation Systems are aimed to supply voice quality comparable to set down line telephone and besides to back up high informations rate. These systems are compatible with circuit switched every bit good as package switched informations services. They are besides compatible with the bing webs and usage wireless spectrum much more expeditiously than earlier. Some Third Generation Systems are Wideband CDMA, WCDMA Universal Mobile Telephone System, UMTS CDMA 2000BEYOND 3GThe extremely developed version of the 3G nomadic communicating are the 4G nomadic communicating services. It is estimated that 4G nomadic communicating services will give addition in capacity, informations transmittal with high velocity, broadband, HQ colour picture images for users, in writing life games in 3D, sound services in 5.1 channels. For the system and architecture of 4G nomadic communicating many researches are done. Developments are made in the terminal protocol engineering for high velocity package services, larger capacity, enabling downloading application plans by public package platform engineering, multimode wireless entree platform engineering, and high quality media coding engineering over nomadic webs.Why 4G?Servicess like wireless cyberspace and teleconference can be carried by 4G. Global mobility and service portability. Wider bandwidths. Increased spot rates. Less expensive. Mobile webs can easy be scaled. Chapter # 02 Multiplexing is a procedure in which a individual bearer is used to convey several different signals. These several signals are transmitted all together by uniting them and organizing one signal that will efficaciously travel through the bearer bandwidth. When one transmittal is done and the signal reaches the finish point, the incorporate signal re-assembles into its existent signifier and is so received. Multiplexing is one of the most used techniques today in about every communicating system. Because of the technological progress multiplexing, we have seen major addition in efficiency of a broad scope of telephone services and on-line applications. Multiplexing has become an effectual technique that assists in everything from video conferences and web conferences up to bulk informations transmittals and even doing a simple Point-to-Point phone call.FDMA:FDMA is the most usual technique used for multiple accessing. FDMA stands for frequence division multiple entree. It is clear from its name that in this technique the frequence is divided among the users as the available spectrum is shared among them in the frequence sphere. The message signals are transmitted onto bearers for different users utilizing peculiar RF frequences. Within FDMA structural design the Single Channel Per Carrier ( SPSC ) is the simplest method where each channel is provided with a separate bearer. This scheme finds its kernel in the fact that the channels are assigned on the footing of demand. Within a cell all the channels are available to all users all the clip, and the channels are assigned as soons as a message signal is received or a petition is made . Guard sets are used to cut down the opportunities of intervention from next channels. These guard sets are present between the sets allocated for assorted channels. In the execution of the first parallel cellular systems, FDMA is the multiplexing technique that was used.TDMA:Time division multiple entree techniques allots different clip intervals to different users for the transmittal of signals and storage of the information is carried out in one frequence channel non like FDMA which uses one frequence per channel. Users are allowed to utilize the same frequence but the clip slots are divided. In TDMA techniques the available spectrum is divided into little frequence sets as in FDMA, which are farther sub-divided into assorted clip slots. The user can entree the frequence channel merely for clip slot allotted to him. User can utilize sporadically the peculiar continuance of clip. In TDMA systems, guard sets are required between both frequence channels and clip slots.SDMA:SDMA stands for Space-Division Multiple Access. It is a MIMO ( Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output, a multiple aerial conventional architecture ) based radio communicating web architecture. It enables entree to a communicating channel by the procedure of placing the user location and set uping a one-on-one function between the web bandwidth allocation and the acknowledged spacial location that is why it ‘s largely suited for nomadic ad-hoc webs. For bulk of the well known nomadic communicating architectures such as CDMA, TDMA and FDMA, SDMA architecture can be configured and implementedCDMA:CDMA stands for Code division multiple entree. CDMA systems are based on the spread spectrum technique. In which transmittals by all the users are carried out at the same time while operating at the same frequence and utilizing the full spectrum bandwidth. For the designation and extraction of needed transmittal, each user is allotted with a alone codification which can non fit with any other user. This issue of designation is due to the fact that all the users transmit at the same time. To guarantee this privateness, pseudo-random noise codifications or PN codifications are used. These codifications are really the extraneous codifications and its advantage is that it reduces the opportunities of transverse correlativity among themselves. By utilizing this PN codification assigned to the specific user, transition of the message signal from an single user is done. Then we have the CDMA frequence channel through which all the modulated signals from different users are transmitted. At the receiving system ‘s terminal, the coveted signal is so recovered by de-spreading the signal with a reproduction of the PN codification for the specific user. The signals whose PN codifications are non matched with the coveted signal and are assigned to different users are non de-spread and as a consequence are regarded as noise by the receiving system. CDMA differs from both TDMA and FDMA in a manner that it allows users to convey the signal at the same clip and operate at the same nominal frequence so it requires less synchronization whereas in TDMA and FDMA frequence and clip direction is really critical so more dynamic synchronism is required. One more advantage of CDMA is that complete system ‘s spectrum is used by signals and hence no guard sets are required to protect against next channel intervention.Intro to Spread Spectrum CommunicationsFollowing are the major elements that can clearly depict the Spread Spectrum communications: By spread spectrum, bandwidth far in surplus is available than that is necessary to direct the information. Due to this characteristic the transmittal can be protected against intervention and jamming at the same clip supplying multiple entree capableness. An independent codification known as the Pseudo random codification is used for signal spreading across the bandwidth. The distinguishable nature of this codification separates dispersed spectrum communications from typical transition techniques in which transition ever spread ‘s the spectrum slightly. For the recovery of the original signal the receiving system is synchronized to the deterministic imposter random codification. Users can convey the signal at the same clip and operate at the same nominal frequence by utilizing independent codification and synchronal response. In order to protect the signal from intervention a pseudo-random codification is used. It appears to be random to anyone who does non hold its pre-defined cognition but in world is deterministic, it is because of this fact that receiving system is able to retrace the codification needed for the recovery of the needed informations signal. This codification used for synchronal sensing is besides called Pseudo noise sequence.Types of Spread Spectrum CommunicationsSpreading of bandwidth of the signal can be achieved by three ways:Frequency skipingThe signal is shuffled between different Centre frequences within the full bandwidth available to the hopper pseudo-randomly, and the receiving system used already knows where to look for the signal at a given clip.Time skipingThe signal is transmitted in short explosions pseudo-randomly, and the receiving system knows when a explosion is expected.Direct sequenceVery high frequence is used to code the digital information. The codification is pse udo-randomly generated. The same codification is generated at the receiver terminal, and in order to pull out the original information this codification is multiplied to the received information watercourse.Beginning Cryptography AND DIGITAL MODULATION3.0 IntroductionDigital Modulation is performed in order to stand for digital informations in a format that is compatible with our communicating channel. Why Digital Modulation? Digital transition strategies have greater capacity to convey big sums of information than parallel transition strategies.3.1 DIGITAL DATA, DIGIITAL SIGNALDigital signal is binary informations encoded into signal elements. Different encoding strategies for encoding digital informations into digital signal are:3.1.1 Non Return to Zero ( NRZ )In NRZ there are two different electromotive force degrees for 0 and 1. There is no passage in the center of the spot. The absence of signal denotes 0 and a positive electromotive force degree denotes 1. The major drawback of NRZ strategy is that it adds a dc constituent to the signal.3.1.2 Multilevel Binary ( AMI )In this encoding strategy there are more than two degrees. No signal represents 0 and 1 is represented by some positive and negative There is no dc constituent in this strategy and besides there is no loss of synchronism for back-to-back 1 ‘s.3.1.3 Manchester CodingThere is passage in center of each spot, which acts as a clock every bit good as informations. The low to high passage represents 1 and high to low represents 0.3.1.4 Differential ManchesterIn this scheme passage at the center of the spot represents merely timing while passage at start represents 0 and no passage at start represents 1.3.2 ANALOG DATA, DIGITAL SIGNALAnalog informations is foremost converted into digital informations by utilizing parallel to digital convertors. These convertors use different techniques to finish their undertaking, some of them are:3.2.1 Pulse Code ModulationIf a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequence, the samples contain all the information of the original signal. Each sample is assigned a digital value. Although its quality is comparable to that of parallel t ransmittal but still in this procedure some information is lost and the original signal can ne'er be recovered.Delta ModulationAnalog input is approximated by a stairway map. Function moves up or down at each sample interval by one degree ( vitamin D ) . Delta transition is easier than PCM in execution, but it exhibits worse signal to resound ratio for the same information rate. But it is good for informations compaction.DIGITAL DATA, ANALOG SIGNALDifferent digital transition techniques are:Amplitude Shift Keying ( ASK )A transition technique in which digital information is represented as fluctuations in the amplitude of a bearer moving ridge is called Amplitude-shift keying ( ASK ) . One binary figure is represented by presence of bearer, at changeless amplitude and the other binary figure represented by absence of bearer.3.3.2 Frequency Shift Keying ( FSK )In frequence displacement identifying different frequences are used to stand for incoming digital information. Say in instance of Binary Frequency Shift Keying f1 is used to stand for 0 while f2 is used to stand for 1. In MFSK more than two frequences are used and therefore bandwidth is more expeditiously utilised.3.3.3 Phase Shift Keying ( PSK )A digital transition technique in which information is transmitted by modulating and altering the stage of the mention signal is called Phase-shift keying ( PSK ) . In instance of PSK, a finite figure of stages are used. A alone form of binary spots is assigned to each of these stages. By and large, each stage encodes an equal figure of spots. The symbol is formed by each form of spots that is represented by the peculiar stage. The bandwidth of ASK and PSK are specified as: Whereas the bandwidth of FSK is given as: Where, Roentgen is the spot rate DF = f2 – fc = fc – f1Chapter # 04CHANNEL Cryptography4.0 IntroductionWhy Channel Cryptography? In modern digital communicating systems information is represented in spot watercourses, which are so modulated to analog wave forms before being transmitted onto a channel. At receiving system this parallel information is demodulated into spot streams, but because of the presence of intervention and noise in the communicating channel this spot watercourse may be corrupted. So to minimise happening of spots in mistake and protect digital information from channel noise and intervention channel cryptography is used. How Channel Coding is performed? Additional redundant spots are added to the message informations watercourse to execute channel cryptography, these excess spots assist in mistake sensing and rectification at the receiving system ‘s terminal. Channel Coding at the cost of? Channel Coding is performed at the cost of bandwidth enlargement and information rate decrease.4.1 TYPES OF CHANNEL CODING TECHNIQUESThere are two chief types of channel coding techniques, Block Codes Convolutional Codes. Block Codes accepts thousand figure of information spots and bring forth a block of n figure of encoded spots, and therefore are normally known as ( n.k ) block codifications. Some common illustrations of block codifications are Overacting Codes and Reed Solomon Codes. Convolutional Coding is frontward error rectification technique that is presently most widely used in modern communicating systems, this peculiar technique is used for real-time mistake rectification. Unlike block codifications which append excess spots at the terminal of original message signal, Convolutional coding organize a new codeword utilizing original informations watercourse. The encoded spots are non entirely dependent on K current input spots but at the same clip on case in point input spots.4.2 CONVOLUTIONAL CODESIn this undertaking Convolutional Coding is implemented. Convolutional Codes are farther classified as 1. Trellis Coded Modulation ( TCM ) 2.Turbo Codes. Trellis Coded Modulation ( TCM ) is non recursive, non systematic and does non necessitate an interleaver. Turbo Codes on the other manus are recursive, systematic, parallel structured and they besides require interleaver. In Wideband CDMA systems TCM is used for all channels while Turbo Codes may be used for DCH and FACH channels. Turbo Codes are sometimes classified as separate subdivision of Channel Codes so from here onwards word Convolutional Code will merely be used for TCM.Types of Transmission ChannelsConvolutional Cryptography 1/2 BCH PCH DCH, FACH 1/2, 1/3 Turbo Coding 1/34.3 CONVOLUTIONAL CODE REPRESENTATIONS4.3.1 Polynomial RepresentationNo. of input information spots = K No. of encoded spots = Ns No. of phases ( Constraint Length ) = K Code Rate = k/n Encoded CodeWord = U The undermentioned illustration shows how Convolutional Codes are represented. Let g1 ( x ) and g2 ( ten ) be encoder multinomials, where g1 ( x ) = 1 + x + x2 g2 ( x ) = 1 + x2 Let input message spot stream be 101, hence input message spot stream multinomial will be, m ( x ) = 1 + x2 The encoded codeword ‘U ‘ will be combination of merchandise of g1 ( x ) with m ( x ) and g2 ( x ) with m ( x ) , m ( x ) x g1 ( x ) = 1 + 1.x + 0.x2 + 1.x3 + 1.x4 m ( x ) x g2 ( x ) = 1 + 0.x + 0.x2 + 0.x3 + 1.x4 Therefore the codeword ‘U ‘ , becomes U = ( 1,1 ) + ( 1,0 ) .x + ( 0,0 ) .x2 + ( 1,0 ) .x3 + ( 1,1 ) .x4 U = 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 14.3.2 State Transition DiagramConvolutional Coding can be represented utilizing State Transition Diagram. Following are State Transition Diagram and State Transition Again for the same input spot stream 10100, the codeword U = 11 10 00 10 11. In the input message last two '00 ‘ spots are tail spots.4.3.2 Block Diagram RepresentationThe undermentioned diagram shows block diagram representation of Convolutional Coding with Code Rate = 1/2 Constraint Length ( No. of Stages ) = 3 The undermentioned illustration illustrates the procedure of Convolutional Coding utilizing block diagram representation for input spot stream 101. So the concluding codeword becomes, U = 11 10 00 10 114.3.2 Trellis Diagram RepresentationFor input spot stream 101, the following diagram shows how Convolutional Coding is performed utilizing Trellis DiagramChapter # 05PULSE SHAPING TECHNIQUES3.0 IntroductionWhy Pulse Determining? It is done in order to cut down Inter Symbol Interference normally known as ISI. How Pulse Shaping is performed? In order to accomplish zero-ISI the overall system response must be equal to Nyquist frequence response.5.1 RAISED COSINE FILTERInter Symbol Interference significantly degrades the informations sensor ability to distinguish between a current symbol from diffused energy of next symbol. This leads to the sensing of mistake and increases BER. So in order to provide ISI, a real-time realisation of Nyquist filter is applied in modern communicating systems. Raised cosine filter is one of the realisation of Nyquist filter. where R = ‘roll-off factor ‘ = 1 ? R ? 0 and T = ‘symbol period ‘ = 1/R Roll-off factor determines the filter bandwidth and represents a tradeoff between the acuteness of the passage set of the filter and impulse response pealing magnitude of the filter. A Nyquist filter has following belongingss: Time response finally goes to zero in a clip period precisely equal to the symbol spacing. By trying the symbol sequence at a given symbol clip point, present symbol is non affected by the energy distributing from the next symbols. The impulse response and the frequence response of the RC filter is Time response of the RC filter goes to zero with a period that precisely equal to the symbol spacing. As the response equals zero at all symbol times except for the coveted one none of the next symbols interfere with each other.5.2 ROOT RAISED COSINE FILTERRC filter is divided into a root raised cosine ( RRC ) filter brace, with one at the transmitter terminal, which performs the pulsation defining in order to restrain the modulated signal bandwidth, and the other at the receiver terminal, that performs matched sensing for optimising the SNR of a known signal in AWGN presence. The Root Raised Cosine filter is so named because its transportation map precisely is the square root of the transportation map of the Raised Cosine filter. Where R = roll off factor and T is symbol period. The RRC filter bandwidth is equal to the root mean square ( RMS ) amplitude 2R. The impulse response and the frequence response of the RRC filter is Both RC and RRC have similar pulsation forms, but the RRC pulsation makes somewhat faster passages, therefore the spectrum of RRC pulsation decays more quickly every bit compared to the RC pulsation. Another of import difference between both pulsations is that the RRC pulsation does non hold zero Inter Symbol Interference. Because of the fact that RRC filter is used at sender and receiver both, the merchandise of these transportation maps is a raised cosine, which will ensue in zero ISI end product.5.3 ROLL OFF FACTORThe roll-off factor, R, is a step of the extra bandwidth of the filter, i.e. the bandwidth occupied beyond the Nyquist bandwidth of 1/2T. Where a?† f is extra bandwidth and Rs is symbol rate.Chapter # 06SPREAD SPECTRUMSpread spectrum is a type of transition where the information is spread across the full frequence spectrum. This procedure of distributing the information across the full spectrum helps signal against noise and intervention. These techniques are largely employed in cell phones and besides with wireless LAN ‘s. To measure up as a spread spectrum signal, two standards must be met The familial signal bandwidth must be in surplus of the information bandwidth. Some map other than the informations being transmitted is used to set up the bandwidth of the attendant transmittal.Why Spread Spectrum?Due to its sole and curious belongingss spread spectrum is preferred over other transition strategies. Some of these belongingss are characterized as advantages and disadvantages of a basic spread spectrum system below.Advantages†¢ It reduces the effects of multipath intervention and at times removes them wholly. †¢ Frequency set is shared at the same time with other users. †¢ Pseudo random codifications guarantee protection of transmittal and privateness. †¢ As the signal is spread over an full spectrum it has a low power spectral denseness.Disadvantages†¢ Due to distributing operation it consumes more bandwidth. †¢ It is at times hard to implement.Types of Spread Spectrum TechniquesMost normally used techniques in a spread spectrum systems are Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Frequency Hoping Spread SpectrumFrequency Hoping Spread SpectrumA frequence skiping dispersed spectrum hops from one narrow set to another all within a wider set. In general the frequence hopper sender sends informations packages at one bearer frequence and so leaps to another bearer frequence before directing ore packages and continues the same modus operandi throughout the period of transmittal. The form that emerges seems to be random but is in fact periodic and easy traceable by pre configured sender and receiving system. These systems can be vulnerable to resound at a peculiar hop but normally are able to direct packages during the following hop.Direct Sequence Spread SpectrumMost widely used technique of spread spectrum is the Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum. A Direct Sequence Transmitter receives the entrance informations watercourse which is to be transmitted and so change over it into a symbol watercourse where the size of a symbol can be one or more spots. Using any of the transition strategies for digital systems such as Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ( QAM ) or Quadrature Phase Shift Keying ( QPSK ) this symbol watercourse is multiplied to a noise like sequence known as imposter random sequence. It is besides know as a bit sequence. As a consequence of this generation the bandwidth of the transmittal is significantly increased. Figure 3. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum System Figure 3. shows the working of a basic Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system. For lucidity intents, one channel is shown working in one way merely.TransmissionFor each channel a distinguishable and different Pseudo random codification is generated. In order to distribute the informations the information watercourse is multiplied with the antecedently generated Pseudo random codification. The signal obtained as a consequence of this generation is so modulated onto a bearer. This modulated bearer wave form is so amplified before broadcast medium.ReceptionThe bearer moving ridge is amplified every bit shortly as it is received by the receiving system. The signal received is so multiplied with a locally generated bearer which gives the spreaded signal. Again a Pseudo random codification is generated on the footing of the signal expected. The procedure of correlativity is carried out on the standard signal and the generated codification which gives the original message signal.Pseudo-Random NoiseThe spread spectrum systems are constructed really similar to other conventional systems. The difference being the add-on of pseudo random generators both at the sender and the receiving system which generate the Pseudo noise sequences required for the functionality of Direct Sequence spread spectrum. These pseudo random noise sequences are used for distributing the signal at the transmitter side and dispreading at the receiver side. A pseudo noise sequence is made up of a figure of symbols which are called french friess. It is imperative that a good codification is selected for its type and length straight affects the system capableness. A alone codification is generated for each channel. All the transmittals for a peculiar user are so added together. At the receiving system each user generates its ain matching codification in order to retrieve the original signals. In order to measure up as a imposter random codification and proper functionality a codification must hold the undermentioned belongingss. The imposter random codification must be deterministic so that the receiving system can bring forth the exact codification as used by the sender It should be random for any hearer who does non hold the cognition of the codification being used so that it appears as noise to any interferer or eavesdropper. Two codifications must be indistinguishable and have no or really little relevancy to each other. The codification should non reiterate shortly there must be a long clip before that happens.Maximal length sequencesMaximal Length sequences can be generated by the aid of displacement registries with feedback applied on them. These sequences meet all the conditions for distributing sequences really purely. The cross correlativity between this sequence and noise is really low, which helps in observing signal out of noise in the receiving system. These sequences are really utile for encoding as they besides have a really low cross correlativity with each other. The entropy belongingss of maximum length sequences can be seen here.Gold SequenceIn order to make two gold sequences, two maximal length sequences are to be combined. They have a really low auto-correlation which enables CDMA systems to convey asynchronously. Gold sequences are constructed by modulo-2 add-on of two maximum length sequences of same length chosen from braces of preferable m-sequences.Walsh CodesWalsh codifications have to be created from hadamard matrices. All generated Walsh codifications would be extraneous to each other. The basic hadamard matrix is shown below. These sequences provide low cross-correlation between each other. Second, the figure of 1 ‘s is same as the figure of 1 ‘s in each codeword. By looking at the matrix above, Walsh codes with different lengths can be generated with the aid of recursion. For a clear apprehension Walsh codes with length equal to 4 are illustrated below.=Spreading the SignalSignal spreading is achieved when the signal is multiplied bitwise with the imposter random sequence. Figure 4. Below gives an penetration into how two spots are multipliied to a pseudo random sequence holding a length of 8 and the its corresponding consequence on the frequence spectrum. Spreading procedure of two spots with the aid of an 8-chip PN sequence is shown on the left side and the consequence of this distributing on the signal ‘s frequence spectrum is shown on the right side of figure. 4 Figure 4. The rule of signal spreadingDe-spreading the SignalDe-spreading of the signal is carried out by multiplying each spot of the signal to its correspond imposter random codification and the consequence is summed bitwise. Figure 5. describes the procedure of de-spreading when a imposter random signal of length 8 is used for transmittal and the de-spreaded signal is equal to the dispersed signal. De-spreading procedure of two spots with a PN sequence of 8-bit is shown on left side and the consequence of the de-spreading on the signal ‘s frequence spectrum is shown on the right. Figure 5. The rule of signal de-spreadingConsequence of Spreading on BandwidthFigure 1. As a consequence of distributing operation the signal ‘s frequence is spread over a wider bandwidth Spread spectrum transition is applied in tandem with some other digitial transition strategies such as QAM or QPSK.Consequence of Despreading on BandwidthFigure 2. The despreading operation recovers the original signal. A spread spectrum transition is applied in coherency with a conventional demodulation process in order to retrieve the original signal.Multiple Access CapabilityThe standard signal s1 is detected by the receiving system summed with the other signal s2. The signal s1 which is for user 1 is merely extracted at the receiving system for user 1 whereas the signal s2 appears to be as noise in comparing to the user 1 signal s1. This is shown in Figure 6. below For efficient recovery of the informations from user 1 it is must that the signal appearance as noise has adequately low energy in the information bandwidth of signal s1. Spreaded informations multi-users De-spreaded informations multi-users Spreaded informations multi-users De-spreaded informations multi-usersFigure 6. Multiple Access Capibility when user 1 recovers signal s1Chapter # 07DESIGN OF A CDMA BASED COMMUNICATION SYSTEM7.1 THE Sender7.1.1 Source EncodingIn order to do incoming message compatible with the communicating system beginning cryptography is used. In this undertaking NRZ encoding strategy is used so that the incoming message signal becomes compatible with the walsh codifications which are besides in NRZ signifier. NRZ encoding provides a better use of the bandwidth, besides if we compare it with AMI strategy it is more efficient because in that receiving system has to separate between three different degrees and it requires more signal power. While the Manchester and differential Manchester strategies have transition rate twice or more than that of NRZ so therefore they require greater bandwidth.7.1.2 Channel EncodingChannel encryption is performed so that spot mistakes can be reduced at the receiving system ; besides it protects the information from channel noise and intervention. In this undertaking we have used Convolutional Encoding technique and so hold tried to upgrade our system utilizing Low Density Parity Check ( LDPC ) . LDPC improves channel capacity as it approaches to Shannon capacity bound. Both Convolutional encoder and LDPC encoder organize a codeword based on the incoming message signal. We have used ? rate encoders that means that we have two input spots and the end product is traveling to be four spots. For Convolutional encoder inbuilt matlab treillage construction along with convenc bid has been used while in instance of LDPC fecldpc.enc bid is used to do LDPC object utilizing thin H matrix and so message is encoded utilizing LDPC object by encode bid.7.1.3 SpreadingThe cardinal standard of spreading is transverse correlativity and car correlativity of message symbols. In instance of a CDMA based communicating system as there are many users that at the same time transmit informations so the system must hold good cross correlativity belongingss. This generates the demand of extraneous codifications so Walsh codifications are used. Walsh codifications have good cross correlativity belongingss. In this undertaking direct sequence spread spectrum ( DSSS ) technique has been employed to distribute the signal across the full bandwidth.7.1.4 Digital TransitionTransition is a technique that facilitates the message signal to be transmitted over the medium. In instance of digital transition, digital signal is modulated utilizing amplitude displacement keying, frequence displacement keying and stage displacement identifying etc. We have implemented Binary PSK, BPSK uses two symbols that have opposite stage to each other to modulate 0 and 1.Sampling frequence of 44 kilohertzs and a information rate of 2 kilohertz has been used in this system. In instance of LDPC modulate bid has been used to modulate the signal.7.1.5 Pulse DeterminingThe consequence of inter symbol intervention ( ISI ) is minimized by the aid of pulse determining procedure. In this undertaking Root Raised Cosine Filter has been used at the transmitter side to determine the pulsation so as to restrict the bandwidth of the modulated signal. By utilizing this technique bandwidth is limited but the signal spreads in so there must be a threshold in order to counter this job, this threshold is known as Nyquist bound. It is fundamentally a low base on balls filter with a axial rotation off factor 0.5 which has been used in this undertaking.7.1.6 Symbol PackingIn symbol wadding, a preparation sequence is appended at the start and terminal of the signal. Besides in add-on to this about 1000 nothings are inserted at the terminal and start of the signal. These are added so that even if the receiving system fails to have initial spots these spots are extra nothings and non the message signal.7.2 THE CHANNELIn a communicating system channel could be wired or wireless. Different channels have different fe atures. When of all time we talk about a channel we talk about noise, it is fundamentally the unwanted electrical signal that confines the receiving system ability to take right determinations. Channel noise degrades the end product really rapidly. Small channel does n't do much difference to the end product signal but big channel noise well degrades the signal. In instance of little channel noise the lone noise that is present in the system is quantization noise. Another of import factor in a communicating system is Inter symbol intervention ( ISI ) . When the channel bandwidth is non much greater than signal bandwidth the spreading of the signal causes ISI. Normally, the radio channel is modeled with AWGN channel. A thermic noise beginning is used to distribute an equal sum of noise power per unit bandwidth over all frequences that is the ground why a simple theoretical account for thermic noise presumes that its power spectral denseness Gn ( degree Fahrenheit ) is level for all frequences, as is denoted as: Gn ( degree Fahrenheit ) = N0/2 watts/hertz7.3 THE Receiver7.3.1 SynchronismIn this system, it is assumed that the receiving system is on all the clip. Therefore whenever the sender will direct the message signal, there should be some manner through which the receiving system can find where its signal of involvement is. This can be done by correlating the preparation sequence with the standard signal. The portion where the maximal correlativity occurs would be the start of the signal and the 2nd upper limit in the correlativity would give the terminal of the message signal.7.3.2 Matched FilteringThe standard signal is passed through root raised cosine filter in order to execute matched filtering and down trying at the receiver terminal. Normally RC filter is divided into a root raised cosine ( RRC ) filter brace, with one at the transmitter terminal, which performs the pulsation defining in order to restrain the modulated signal bandwidth, and the other at the receiver terminal, that performs matched sensing for optimising SNR of a known signal in AWGN presence.7.3.3 DemodulationThe signal is demodulated by multiplying it by the bearer signal. The end product would be demodulated signal, but this demodulated signal would be sum of all the spreaded signals.7.3.4 DespreadingIn order to pull out the single message signal of each user, the spreaded signal is so once more multiplied by the Walsh codification and is so integrated over a symbol clip.7.3.5 Channel DecodingIf the channel cryptography was non employed by the sender, so the despreaded messages would be the standard signals. In the channel coding instance, the signal will hold to be decoded by utilizing the viterbi decrypting map in matlab.7.3.6 Source DecodingWhile executing beginning cryptography we had used NRZ encoding strategy, so now at the receiving system this encoded message is once more decoded back to its original signifier.

An Analysis of Becoming a Visible Man by J. Green - 879 Words

Becoming a Visible Man was an insightful and intriguing book to read for this course. It first caught my attention with the picture of the author on the cover smiling next to a billboard of a man bursting through water, almost as if he was being reborn. The process of being reborn was then seen as a common theme throughout the autobiography. The concepts of transsexualism caught my attention during class because I was least familiar with this sub population of individuals within the queer community. I strived to know more about the understandings of what it was like to go through changes in gender, its effects on relationships both sexual and non, as well as the emotional struggle that some people faced with themselves through the process†¦show more content†¦He had achieved the shock value not only with myself as the reader, but ultimately who he was addressing. Jamison had been an educator of trans people, speaking out to audiences of college students of all ages. His goal of educating the public stemmed from his own experiences with choosing to change genders as well as a broad overview of the ideas that surrounded transsexualism as a whole. He communicates well that his experiences do not encompass all transgendered people’s experiences and that transformation from male to female (MTF) is quite different from female to male (FTM) transformation. The societal complications from FTM are well examined from Jamison’s view. Many people believed that females that wanted to become males could By the time he was in his early 20s, Jamison knew he a part of him wanted to be transsexual, but he was afraid to acquire treatment because he was scared of what loved ones, strangers, and society would think of him. He believed the social mythology that one must be seriously psychologically imbalanced to perform such an act as actually changing ones sex (Green, 2004). Jamison did not want to risk losing all his social support that he had as an independent lesbian of his time. As Jamison later in life approached his mid-30’s he knew that he no longer wanted to live his life as a woman and he made the courageous step in seeking treatment for transsexualism. At the time Jamison was livingShow MoreRelatedBasella Rubra Fruit Extract2926 Words   |  12 PagesMaria Zennah Quinto, Camille Rosales, Ana Mariella Valmonte, Kyla Nicole Villalon, Gian Angelo 4MT-2 Statement of the Problem Can Basella rubra fruit extract be used as a counterstain in Gram staining? Introduction amp; Background According to H. J. Croxx, when microscopists first began to use stains in the sixties and seventies, the demand for dyes for this purpose was naturally too small to justify a special source of supply. 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Yoga And Mental Health - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 744 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/08/07 Category Sports Essay Level High school Tags: Yoga Essay Did you like this example? A person in such state is called a healthy person or Swastha. In this definition, Samadosha indicates the normal condition of Vata, Pitta and Kapha. The imbalanced conditions that is either lower or higher condition is a state of disease. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Yoga And Mental Health" essay for you Create order Likewise, Samagni means the normal condition or quality of the body’s Agni, the power or energy. If the Agni is abnormal and in low quality, it is called Mandagni. Mandagni also brings the state of disease. Ayurveda describes 7 types of body’s components which are called Sapta-Dhatu. These seven Dhatu includes Rasa, Rakta, Mamsa, Medas, Asthi, Majja and Shukra. All these components should be in balance and their functions must be proper, otherwise it is the abnormal state of health. The elimination of wastages is called Mala-Kriya. The balanced state of the Mala like Purisa (faeces), Mutra (urine) and Sweda (Sweat) in the body also determines health or illness in the body. Ayurveda gives equal importance to the mental health. The Sutra gives more emphasis to the mental well-being. If a person wants to be healthy, his sensory and motor organs and mind have to be in happy and pleasant conditions instead of griefful, sad and imbalanced mind which leads to psychosomatic dis eases. Unhealthy body and mind do not play any role in the overall development of an individual, a society and a nation, but instead it harms the individual. Physical and mental health are important in every fields of economics, education, value, information, science, technology etc. The condition of mental health depends on different human qualities. Yogic theory of mental and personal quality is based on Tri-Guna such as Sattvika, Rajas and Tamas Guna of Vedic concept. Among these three Gunas, Sattva represents positive, stable, peaceful, joyful and blissful condition of mind which leads to positive behavior; Rajas represents unstabale, naughty, helter-skeltar and disorganized condition of mind which leads to excessive attachment over materialistic things, momentary pleasures and ultimately, it disturbs the mind and mental health. Sharma Tiwari (1993, p. 457) stated that according to Atharva-Veda, the one who behaves abnormally and is unable to keep the Guna’s level in a sufficient balance, he or she goes to abnormal condition. The ancient and modern thoughts are similar in the case of normal and abnormal behavior. According to brown (1940), â€Å"The chief tenet of modern psychopathology is that abnormal psychological phenomena are simply exaggeration s (i.e. overdevelopments or under-developments) or disguised (i.e., perverted) developments of normal psychological phenomena† (p.6). Since ancient age, the concept of the mental health and illness was developed. In Atharva-Veda, the nature of abnormal psychology and its therapy is included as insanity, mania, seizure-hysteria, epilepsy, fear-phobia, schizophrenia paranoia type, anger-rage, jealousy, feeling guilt and inferiority; eroticism, evil dream, sharp compulsive evil suggestion, memory and learning improvement, energising ego; integration and social harmony. Singh Tiwari, Ibid. pp. 457-458 Pradhan (2016), addressed that mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or emotional well-being or an absence of a mental disorder. From perspective of the discipline of positive psychology or holism, mental health may include an individual’s ability to enjoy life and procure a balance between life activities and efforts to achieve psychological resilience. The review of literature revealed that the state of the mental health depends on work and workplace; behavior of friends, family members, teachers; quality of relationship and support from the ones considered close such as parents, family members; physical conditions; social participations, learning and teaching methods, family environment and financial condition. According to the scriptures of yoga, action (Karma), quality (Guna) and state of Chitta determines a person’s performance and overall mental health. Characteristics of Mentally Healthy Persons Lewkan (1949) defined mentally healthy person as the one who is happy, lives peacefully with her/his neighbours, strives to makes his children healthy citizens and after fulfilling such basic responsibilities is still empowered with sufficient strength to save the cause of the society. A mentally healthy person has some characteristics and indicators, among them the major ones are enlisted below: 1. Self respect, feeling selfless, secure and reverence for other 2. Positive emotions and autoenthusiasm 3 . Behaviour according to time/situation and adjustment 4. Knowledge and acceptance of one’s own shortcomings 5. True knowledge or estimation and right decision 6. General Intelligence and genuine contact with reality 7. Knowledge of own power and ability 8. Organized personality and hardworking 9. Firm determination and role execution 10. Learning from experience 11. Equal emphasis on personality, performance and behaviour Mishra Mishra (1989, p. 13-16)

Essay on Drugs, Money, Media and Advertising - 1849 Words

Drugs, Money, Media and Advertising Ads for pharmaceutical drugs are everywhere. They are in magazines, on television and radio, on billboards, and on the little bags that you get from the pharmacist. These days it is difficult to get away from all the drug advertising. All these ads are for products that require a doctors prescription. The goal of advertising is to increase profits. By advertising so heavily for drugs that the majority of the population does not need, pharmaceutical companies attempt to create as large a consumer base as they can. In advertising directly to the consumer, the drug companies accomplish two objectives. First, they get information directly to the consumer. Second, they promote the product and†¦show more content†¦Doctors often prescribe these drugs to those who have allergy-like symptoms without checking for particular allergies (Francis, 2001; Swanson, 2001). With so many commercials that tout the drugs as relieving symptoms and causing few side effects, many people are lulled into thinking that no side effects exist. The public is bombarded by images of happy people in fun and relaxing situations. They show what life could be for those who take these drugs. Lulled into a false sense of security by all these marketing tactics, why wouldnt people go see their doctors and ask for these drugs? Ken Sanes (2000) gives a detailed description of a Claritin commercial and talks about its symbolism. This particular ad featured a hot air balloon and people enjoying an elaborate picnic in a field, after which they took a ride in the balloon. The website describes the ad as contrasting the feeling of being trapped and weighted down, . . . with a floating hot air balloon and an upbeat song about blue skies. 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The Secret Circle The Power Chapter Fifteen Free Essays

Around four o’clock the power went off. The house got colder. They lit candles and went on reading. We will write a custom essay sample on The Secret Circle: The Power Chapter Fifteen or any similar topic only for you Order Now â€Å"‘For Protection Against Fire and Water,'† Cassie read. But Melanie said the spell which came after wasn’t powerful enough to protect against a hurricane, and Cassie knew she was right. â€Å"Here, this is To Cast Out Fear and Malignant Emotions,'† Diana read from her own book. â€Å"‘Sun by day/ and moon by night/ let all dark thoughts/ be put to flight.’ Nice thought.† They went on reading. A Charm to Cure a Sickly Child. An Amulet for Power. Three Spells to Bind a Lover. To Raise a Storm – that, they didn’t need, Cassie thought wryly. She read again about crystals: how the larger a crystal was, the more energy it could store and focus. The spell To Turn Aside Evil, she read aloud, although she didn’t understand it. â€Å"‘Invoke the power which is yours alone, calling upon the elements or those features of the natural world which lie closest to your heart. These powers have you over all that is evil: powers of sun and moon and stars, and of everything belonging to the earth.'† She read it again, puzzling. â€Å"I still don’t get it.† â€Å"I think it means that as witches we can call on nature, on the things that are good, to fight evil,† Melanie said. â€Å"Yes, but how do we call on them?† Cassie said. â€Å"And what do they do when we do it?† Melanie didn’t know. It got dark. The gray light from the windows got dimmer and dimmer and finally faded altogether. Wind banged the shutters and rattled the glass in the windows. The rain kept coming steadily in the blackness. â€Å"What do you think he’ll do?† asked Suzan. â€Å"Something unfriendly,† said Laurel. Cassie was proud of them. They were scared; she knew them well enough to know that fear was what was behind Deborah’s restless pacing and Melanie’s stillness, but none of them were running away or backing down. Doug cracked bad jokes, and Chris made paper airplanes. Nick sat tense and silent, and Adam kept Doug’s headphones on, listening to the news on the radio. At six o’clock the storm stopped. Cassie’s ears, used to the drumming of rain and the clattering and banging and howling of wind, felt suddenly empty. She looked and saw the others were all sitting alert. â€Å"It can’t be over,† Suzan said. â€Å"Unless it missed us?† â€Å"It’s still out in the Atlantic,† Adam said. â€Å"They think it should hit land in about an hour. This is just the calm before the storm.† â€Å"Cassie?† said Diana. â€Å"I think he’s making his move,† Cassie said, trying to sound calm. And then every muscle in her body tightened. Cassandra. It was his voice in her mind. She looked at the others and saw they’d heard it too. Bring your coven to the end of Crowhaven Road. To Number Thirteen, Cassandra. I’m waiting for you. Cassie’s fingers clenched on a piece of unfolded laundry lying nearby. She tried to concentrate on the power of the Master Tools, on the warmth where they touched her. Then she pushed with her mind, forming words. We’re coming. Say hello to Faye. She let out her breath. Doug grinned at her. â€Å"Pretty good,† he said. It was sheer bravado, and they all knew it, but it made Cassie feel better. She inconspicuously wiped her wet palms on the laundry and stood up. â€Å"Let’s go,† she said. Diana had been right; wearing the symbols of the coven leader and the white shift, she didn’t feel cold. Outside, the sky was clear and the earth was silent except for the sound of the waves. Yes, the calm before the storm, Cassie thought. It was a very uneasy calm, ready to erupt into violence again at any moment. Melanie said, â€Å"Look at the moon.† Cassie’s stomach lurched. It looked like a crescent moon, a silver disk with a bite out of it. But Cassie sensed the wrongness there. It wasn’t a crescent moon; it was a full moon being invaded, overshadowed. She was watching darkness fall on a bright world. She thought she could actually see the shadow moving, covering more of the white surface. â€Å"Come on,† she said. They walked up the wet street, making for the headland. They passed Suzan’s house with its Grecian pillars, a gray bulk against the moonlight. They passed Sean’s house, just as dark. Water gurgled down the sides of the road in little rivers. They passed Cassie’s house. They reached the vacant lot at Number Thirteen. It looked just the way it had when they had celebrated Halloween here by making a bonfire and calling up Black John’s spirit. Empty, deserted. Barren. There was nobody here. â€Å"Is it a trick?† Nick asked sharply. Cassie shook her head uncertainly. The little voice inside wasn’t telling her anything. She looked eastward at the moon, and felt another shock. It was visibly smaller, the crescent very thin now. The shadow was not black or gray, but a dull copper-brown color. â€Å"Ten minutes until totality,† Melanie said. â€Å"About half an hour until the hurricane reaches land,† said Adam. A fresh wind blew around them. Cassie’s feet, in the thin white shoes Diana had brought for her, were damp. They stood uncertainly. Cassie listened to the waves crashing at the base of the cliff. Her senses were alert, searching, but nothing seemed to be happening. Minutes dragged by and her nerves stretched more and more taut. â€Å"Look,† Diana whispered. Cassie looked at the moon again. The dull brownish shadow was swallowing up the last fingernail-thin edge of brightness. Cassie watched it go, like a candle winking out. Then she gasped. The sound was involuntary and she was ashamed of it, but everyone else was gasping too. Because the moon hadn’t just gone dark, like a new moon, and it wasn’t even the coppery-brown color. As it was covered by shadow it turned red, a deep and ominous red, like old blood. High in the sky, perfectly visible, it glowed like a coal with unnatural light. Then someone choked and Sean made a squealing noise. Cassie turned quickly, in time to see it happening. On the empty lot before them, something was appearing. A rectangular bulk was taking shape, and as Cassie watched, it became more and more solid. She could see a steeply pitched roof, flat clapboard walls, small windows irregularly placed. A door made of heavy planks. It looked like the old wing of her grandmother’s house, the original dwelling from 1693. It shone with a dull light, like the blood-red moon. â€Å"Is it real?† Deborah whispered. Cassie had to wait a moment to get the breath to speak. â€Å"It’s real now,† she said. â€Å"Right now, for a few minutes, it’s real.† â€Å"It’s horrible,† Laurel whispered. Cassie knew what she was feeling, what the whole coven was feeling. The house was evil, in the same way that the skull was evil. It looked twisted, askew, like something out of a nightmare. And it gripped all of them with an instinctual terror. Cassie could hear Chris and Doug breathing hard. â€Å"Don’t go near it,† Nick said tightly. â€Å"Everybody stay back until he comes out.† â€Å"Don’t worry,† Deborah assured him. â€Å"Nobody’s going near that.† Cassie knew better. The inner voice, silent just a few moments ago, was telling her clearly now what she had to do. What it wasn’t telling her was how to get up the courage to do it. She looked behind her, at the rest of them standing there. The Club. The Circle. Her friends. Ever since her initiation, Cassie had been so happy to be a part of this group. She’d relied on different members of it at different times, crying on Diana and clinging to Nick and Adam when she needed them. But now there was something she had to do, and not even Nick or Adam could help her with it. Not even Diana could go with her. â€Å"I have to go alone,† she said. She figured out that she’d said it aloud when she saw them all staring at her. The next instant they were all protesting. â€Å"Don’t be crazy, Cassie. That’s his territory; you can’t go in there,† Deborah said. â€Å"Anything could happen. Let him come out,† Nick told her. â€Å"It’s too dangerous. We won’t let you go by yourself,† Adam said flatly. Cassie looked at him reproachfully, because he was the one who’d said that being coven leader might not be good for her; and he was right, so he was the one who should understand now. Of course this was dangerous, but she had to do it. Black John – John Blake – Jack Brunswick, whatever you wanted to call him – had summoned her here, and he was waiting for her inside. And Cassie had to go. â€Å"If you didn’t want to listen to me you shouldn’t have elected me leader,† she said. â€Å"But I’m telling you now, that’s what he wants. He isn’t coming out. He wants me to go in.† â€Å"But you don’t have to,† Chris said, almost pleading. Of them all, only Diana was silent. She stood, mouth trembling, tears hanging on her lashes. It was to her that Cassie spoke. â€Å"Yes, I do,† she said. And Diana, who understood about being a leader, nodded. Cassie turned away before she could see Diana cry. â€Å"You stay here,† she said to all of them, â€Å"until I come out. I’ll be all right; I’ve got the Master Tools, remember?† Then she started walking toward the house. The nails in the heavy timber door were set in a pattern of swirls and diamonds. They seemed to glow redder than the wood around them. Cassie touched the iron door-handle hesitantly, but it was cool and solid to her fingers. The door swung open before her and she went inside. Everything here was slightly misty, like a red hologram, but it felt real enough. The kitchen was much like her grandmother’s kitchen and it was empty. The parlor next door was the same. A flight of narrow, winding stairs rose from the back corner of the parlor. Cassie climbed the steps, noting with a strange amusement the incongruity of the tin lantern hanging on the wall. It was giving off a cold, eerie red light, barely brighter than the house itself. The stairs were steep and her heart was pounding when she reached the top. The first small bedroom was empty. So was the second. That left only the large room over the kitchen. Cassie walked toward it without faltering. On the threshold she saw that the red glow in here was brighter, like the surface of the shadowed moon. She went in. He was inside, standing so tall that his head almost touched the uneven ceiling. He was giving off a light of pure evil. His face was triumphant and cruel, and inside, Cassie thought she could see the outlines of the skull. Cassie stopped and looked at him. â€Å"Father,† she said, â€Å"I’ve come.† â€Å"With your coven,† Black John said. â€Å"I’m proud of you.† He extended a hand to her, which she ignored. â€Å"You brought them here very nicely,† he went on. â€Å"I’m glad they had the sense to acclaim you as leader.† â€Å"It’s only temporary,† Cassie said. Black John smiled. His eyes were on the Master Tools. â€Å"You wear them well,† he said. Cassie felt a slow writhe of panic in her stomach. Everything was going according to his plan, she could see that. She was here, with the tools he’d wanted for so long, on his territory, in his house. And she was afraid of him. â€Å"There’s no need to be frightened, Cassandra,† he said. â€Å"I don’t want to hurt you. We don’t need to quarrel. We have the same purpose: to unify the coven.† â€Å"We don’t have the same purpose.† â€Å"You are my daughter.† â€Å"I’m no part of you!† Cassie cried. He was playing on her emotions, looking for her weaknesses. And every minute the hurricane was getting closer to land. Cassie sought desperately for a distraction, and she glimpsed something behind the tall man. â€Å"Faye,† she said. â€Å"I didn’t see you there, standing in his shadow.† Faye stepped forward indignantly. She was wearing the black silk shift, like a negative image of Cassie’s, and her own diadem, bracelet, and garter. She lifted her head proudly and gazed at Cassie with smoldering golden eyes. â€Å"My two queens,† Black John said fondly. â€Å"Dark and bright. Together, you will rule the coven – â€Å" â€Å"And you’ll rule us?† Cassie asked sharply. Black John smiled again. â€Å"It’s a wise woman who knows when to be ruled by a man.† Faye wasn’t smiling. Cassie looked at her sideways. Black John didn’t appear to notice. â€Å"Do you want me to stop the hurricane?† he asked Cassie. â€Å"Yes. Of course.† This was what she’d come for, to hear his terms. And to try and find his weak point. Cassie waited. â€Å"Then all you have to do is swear an oath. A blood oath, Cassandra; you’re familiar with those.† He held a hand out to Faye without looking at her. Faye stared at the hand for an instant, then reached down to pull a dagger out of her garter. The black-handled knife used for casting circles on the ground. Black John held it up, then he cut his own palm. Blood welled out sluggishly, dark red. Like Adam, Cassie thought wildly, her heart accelerating. Like the oath Adam and I swore. The tall man held the dagger toward Cassie. When she made no move to step forward and take it, he held it toward Faye. â€Å"Give it to her,† he said. Faye took the dagger and handed it to Cassie, handle first. Slowly, Cassie’s fingers grasped it. Faye moved back to Black John’s side. â€Å"It’s just a little blood, Cassandra. Swear obedience to me and I’ll release the hurricane, let it turn harmlessly back out to sea. Then you and I can begin our reign together.† The dagger was actually trembling in Cassie’s hand. There was no way to steady her pulse now. She knew what she was going to do, but she needed time to get her nerve up. â€Å"How did you kill Jeffrey?† she said. â€Å"And why?† The tall man looked momentarily taken aback, then he recovered. â€Å"By getting him to sit down for a moment; and to cause dissent between our kind and the outsiders,† he said. He smiled. â€Å"Besides, I didn’t like his attention to my daughter. He wasn’t one of us, Cassandra.† Cassie wished Portia could see her â€Å"Mr. Brunswick† now. â€Å"Why did you use Sean?† she asked. â€Å"Because he was weak, and he already wore a stone that I could influence,† he said. â€Å"Why all these questions? Don’t you realize – â€Å" He broke off then and moved lightning fast. While he was in the middle of speaking, Cassie had thrown the dagger at him. She’d never thrown a knife before, but some ancestor who’d worn the Master Tools must have, because the bracelet seemed to guide her right arm, and the dagger flashed end over end straight toward Black John’s heart. But the tall man was simply too quick. He caught the dagger in midair – by the blade – and stood holding it, looking at Cassie. â€Å"That was unworthy of you, Cassandra,† he said. â€Å"And hardly any way to behave to your father. Now I’m angry with you.† He didn’t sound angry; his voice was cold as death and poisonous. Cassie had thought she’d been afraid before, but that had been nothing. Now she was truly afraid. Her knees were weak and the pounding of her heart shook her whole body. Black John tossed the dagger back and it stuck in the floor in front of Cassie, quivering. â€Å"The hurricane is about to reach land,† he said. â€Å"You don’t have a choice; you’ve never had a choice. Take the oath, Cassandra. Do it!† I’m frightened, Cassie thought. Please, I’m so frightened . . . She was wearing the Master Tools, but she had no idea how to use them. â€Å"I am your father. Do as I tell you.† If only I knew how to use them †¦ â€Å"You have no power to defy me!† â€Å"Yes, I do,† Cassie whispered. In her mind, a door opened, a silver light dawned. Like the moon coming out of a shadow, it illuminated everything. She understood the spell to turn aside evil now. Invoke the power which is yours alone . . . these powers have you over all that is evil†¦ Suddenly, she felt as if a long line of witches were standing behind her. She was only the last, only one of them, and all their knowledge was hers. Their knowledge and their power. Words rose to her lips. â€Å"Power of moon have I over thee,† she said shakily. Black John stared at her, seeming to recoil. â€Å"Power of moon have I over thee,† Cassie repeated, more strongly. â€Å"Power of sun have I over thee.† Black John stepped back. Cassie stepped forward, searching for the next words in her mind. But she didn’t say them. A voice said them for her, a voice behind her. â€Å"Power of stars have I over thee. Power of planets have I over thee.† It was Diana, her fair hair stirred as if in a light wind. She came to stand behind Cassie, tall and proud and slender, like a silver sword. Cassie’s heart swelled; she had never been more glad to have anybody disregard her instructions in her life. â€Å"Power of tides have I over thee. Power of rain have I over thee,† said Adam. He was right beside Diana, his hair shining like firelight, like rubies, in the red glow. Deborah was behind him, her dark hair tumbling around a small face fierce with concentration. â€Å"Power of wind have I over thee,† she said. Nick joined her, his eyes cold and angry. â€Å"Power of ice have I over thee.† And Laurel. â€Å"Power of leaf have I over thee. Power of root have I over thee.† And Melanie. â€Å"Power of rock have I over thee.† They were all here, all joining Cassie, adding their voices to hers. And Black John was cowering before them. â€Å"Power of thunder have I over thee,† Doug told him, and, â€Å"Power of lightning have I over thee,† shouted Chris. â€Å"Power of dew have I over thee,† Suzan said, and pushed a small figure in front of her. It was Sean, and he was shaking, seemingly terrified to come face to face with the man who had controlled his mind. But his voice rose in a shriek. â€Å"Power of blood have I over thee!† Black John was against the red wall of the house now, and he looked shrunken. His features had lost definition, and the red glow had died, leaving him black in reality. But there were only eleven in Cassie’s coven; the Circle wasn’t complete. And only a full Circle could stand against this man. As Sean’s yell died, Black John straightened. He took a step toward them, and Cassie’s breath caught. â€Å"Power of fire have I over thee!† a husky voice cried, and he fell back. In astonishment, Cassie looked at Faye. The tall girl seemed to have gained height as Black John had lost it, and she looked every inch a barbarian queen as she stood glaring at him. Then she moved to stand beside Cassie. â€Å"Power of darkness have I over thee,† she said, each word a stabbing knife. â€Å"Power of night have I over thee!† Now, thought Cassie. He was weak, wounded, and they were united. Now, if ever, was the time to defeat him. But neither Fire nor Water had done it before. Black John had been defeated twice, had died twice, but always he’d come back. If they were going to get rid of him permanently they had to do more than destroy his body. They had to destroy the source of his power – the crystal skull. If we only had a larger crystal, Cassie thought. But there was no larger crystal. She thought desperately of the protruding outcrops of granite in New Salem . . . but they weren’t crystal, they wouldn’t hold and focus energy. Besides, she didn’t just need a big crystal, she needed an enormous one. One so huge – so huge . . . I like to think of crystals as a beach, she heard Melanie’s laughing voice say in her mind. A crystal is just fossilized water and sand . . . Along with the words came a picture. A glimpse of Cassie’s own hand that first day on the beach at Cape Cod. â€Å"Look down,† Portia had hissed, seeing Adam coming, and so Cassie had looked down, ashamed, staring at her own fingers trailing in the sand. In the sand that glittered with tiny flecks of garnet, with green and gold and brown and black crystals. A beach. A beach. â€Å"With me!† Cassie shouted. â€Å"All of you think with me – give me your power! Now!† She pictured it clearly, the long beach stretching parallel to Crowhaven Road. More than a mile of it, of crystal piled on crystal. She sent her thoughts racing toward it, gathering the power of the coven behind her. She focused on it, through it, looking now at Black John – at the crystal skull with its grinning teeth and its hollow eyes. And then she pushed with her mind. She felt it go out of her, like a rush of heat, like a solar flare with the energy of the entire Circle driving it. It poured through her into the beach, and from the beach into Black John, focused and intensified, with all the power of Earth and Water combined. And this time when the skull exploded it was in a shattering rain of crystal like the blasted amethyst pendant. There was a scream that Cassie would never forget. Then the floor of the house at Number Thirteen disappeared from under her feet. How to cite The Secret Circle: The Power Chapter Fifteen, Essay examples

Accounting Theory and Current Issue

Question: Describe about theAccounting Theory and Current Issues. Answer: The potential issues that may arise is the agreement on which method or the methods that the accountants and the auditors in the company may use to value the plant, equipment and the property in the organization (Mehta et al, 2012 p193). This may arise from the fact that the different valuation methods may give different values making it hard to arrive at a conclusive amount. The management may also have a say in the valuation process making it hard to arrive at the correct amount in valuation. Risks associated with such misrepresentation are the lack of a true and fair representation of the true value of the assets that belong to the company. For instance, in case they were to take a loan and they over valued or undervalued the value of their assets; such will affect their accessibility to the funds. A false value in the financial statements affects the balancing of the statements as they do not reflect the true value of all assets in the company. KGC has the responsibility of revaluing their assets to the market value at the current standing despite the challenges and the cases in court. This is because the fixed assets held by an enterprise for other purposes other than the reselling decrease in value and should be valued an entity. The main purpose and justification for the revaluation of the assets of an organization is to bring the value to the books the fair market value of the fixed assets. This helps in making decisions on whether to resell the assets or to invest in other type of businesses depending on the value at hand (Kaeb, 2007 p237). Other reasons for revaluing the assets is that it enables the company show the true rate of returns from the capital invested. KGC will also determine the value of the plant, property and equipment as some increase in value while others decrease in values with time. The period between the purchase and the correct price may have a considerable difference. On the other hand, the company should revalue the PP E as they make the necessary plans on the replacement after their useful lives (Miller, 2006 p75). The provisions for the depreciation of the assets are based on the historic costs which indicate the inflated profits. The major principles in accounting and the provision for fixed assets dictate that the assets should be revalued at the end of each financial year as reflected in the financial statements. Principles from the International Accounting Standards (IAS) provide the guidelines of what an organization should consider as an asset which will bring forth the economic benefits to the entity (Houy et al, 2010 p627). The measurement of the PPE are based on the purchase price, the costs that are directly attributed to the asset as well as the costs incurred with the dismantling and the removal of the item at the restoring the site on which the plant, equipment or the property were located. It has two options from where to choose from in the principles to apply when revaluing the asset (Goldthau Sovacool, 2012 p233). The first is either the revalued amount which is the fair value as at the date of the revaluation less any subsequent accumulated amount in depreciation and the accumulated losses attached. The other option is the valuation of the cost minus any accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment losses. Annual depreciation= NBV / remaining useful life 16.5 billion/ 3years = 5.5 billion KGC LTD PP E Movement schedule Cost/ valuation: AUD (billions) NBV 16.5 Additions: 12.0 Reclassification:(20.5) As at the end of year:8.5 Depreciation As at the beginning:5.5 NETBOOK VALUE 8.5 5.5 = 3billion AUD The true and fair Netbook value of KGC LTD is 3 billion AUD its assets are not fully depreciated hence there was no need of revaluation. Therefore, the original cost of the PP E and annual depreciation should be disclosed in the books as the assets are used to generate income. On the other hand, the useful life of an asset was revised since the contract could be renewed up to 10 years in addition of the current 7 years. KGC Ltd has many merits within the area that it operates as it has tremendously helped to improve the life and the living standards of the people within the area, either directly or indirectly through provision of employment opportunities. Many of the employees in the organization are from the local areas and it has enabled invention of the major social amenities like the hospitals and schools within which the local people attend for medical attention and for the thirst of education for their children respectively (Godfrey et al, 2010 p1000). The triple bottom line is an accounting framework which touches on three parts that is the social, the ecological and the financial aspect of the community within which the organization operates. It also helps in creating a greater value in the business. This is also the bottom line of the effect the organization has on the environment and the introduction of the full cost accounting. The triple bottom line or the TBL as commonly known argues that the existence of an organization within an environment and the effect of the same on the environment hence affecting the quality and the life of the people around. In this case, KGC Ltd affects the community negatively through the waste products it emits to the environment and to the water bodies. Such actions risk the life of people health wise. The sludge that it deposited in the village has affected the two local villages (Muduli, et al, 2013 p335). Such has caught the attention of the Australian environmentalist who argues that the company is environmentally irresponsible due to their lack of proper disposal of their waste (Froyd Willis, 2008 p1723). This makes the organization get exposed at a risk of losing out in their existence within the local community due to the remarks from the management on the role that KGC plays on the community around, such remarks are an attempt to justify their reckless behavior. In as much that the KGC Ltd has helped in uplifting the people of the area, they do not have the mandate to have irresponsible ways of disposal of waste products. The TBL issue also helps in measuring the profits and the returns on investment of each organization. In the recent past, it has incorporated the issue of the environment and the social dimensions which makes it important for the company to have an important tool within which they can support their goals while at the same time managing their environment dimensions. The major concern that KGC Ltd should have even as they engage in their mining activities is the profits, the planet, and the people (Muske et al, 2007 p45). In order to succeed and maintain the healthy relationship between the organization and the environment, it should put measures in place within which to calculate a common ground for mutual benefit. The risks that the company faces are the possibility of having the legally recognized environmentalists take over the organization and the management of the organization. The social movements may not take it kindly that the company disregards their welfare despite the many benefits that they get from the existence of the organization within their locality. The government may step in and put harsh measures that will affect the proper management of the organization which may affect the profitability of the organization and other areas streaming down to the local people. The management should make plans on how to deal with the risks that affect them before they develop in adverse results. KGC Ltd has the legal responsibility of maintaining a legitimacy in the eyes of the traditional land owners as it has to pay the dues that it owes to the land owners. This makes it possible for the land owners to enjoy the maximum benefit they can possibly acquire from the organization. The importance of maintaining the legitimacy is that it gives the respect in matters of land ownership hence making it possible for other people on land tenure-ship to give forth the dues they owe other land owners (Fernie Sparks, 2009 p129). Such will help in improving the living conditions of the people in the local area as the impact has on the less fortunate people in the society. The ownership of land by the original owners gives them the power of asking for the dues that belong to them as part of the compensation for the amount that they owed. This depends on the rate at which they agreed from the beginning and the increasing number of rates as time goes. In essence, the rate appreciates depending on the new timing and the increase in the number of years (Esteves Vanclay, 2009 p137). Depending on the agreement of the lease, the organization should continue paying the rates to the land owner to honor the agreement and reduce the risk of conflicts arising. The government of PNG deserves some form of legitimacy in terms of the revenue that it will collect from the company as it is one of the main areas that it gets the resources to conduct public matters. Such depends on the category that the KGC Ltd falls in terms of remitting the tax returns (Donoghue, 2004 p284). They should file the tax returns at the right time to avoid the issues with the government hence enable the government provide the services that it should to the public. On the other hand, the government should ensure that their laws and regulations should not affect the normal operations of the organization through imposing new taxation requirements that the organization should pay. Such new regulations may push the company in refusing to remit the required resources hence creating more conflicts with the government and the organization. The government requires that all organizations operating within their jurisdiction should pay the relevant and required revenues as long as they make profit (Boston, 2006. p96). The tenure policies in regards to land ownership will ensure that the government does not have to get involved in court cases between the organization and the land owners which will make it a lengthy process. Such will ensure that there is legal and social legitimacy in ensuring that all dues were paid by all organizations including the KGC Ltd. The issue of legitimacy on the people of Australia is also another issue that the organization should consider. The people of Australia expect some form of respect to the land ownership issues making the KGC organization pay the dues that it respects. Their maintenance of the legitimacy will act as a communication or message to other organizations that they should respect the boundaries when it comes to land ownership (Boehm, 2005 p144). Other organizations operating within Australia may use the example of KGC Ltd if they failed to honor their rules which may make other organizations follow suit crumbling the whole economy of the country. The far end results are more important that the face value of the maintenance of the legitimacy. The legitimacy of the company is at a high risk due to the current court cases that are facing the company brought forth through their irresponsible actions. Their remarks further aggravate the situation as they feel they are justified to put the lives of the locals at a risk as a result of the many developments that they have helped the PNG people. In order to reduce the risks that they face, they should take actions and rectify the problems they have created which will instill the confidence that the people have on the company (Baskin, 2006 p29). The rare sludge spill may lead to loss of lives of both human and animals due to the reckless actions of the organization. However, in the bigger picture, the closure of the company may affect the lives of many people as most of its employees are from the area. The royalties it owes to the traditional owners of the land within where they mine may further aggravate their position in the land. The taxes to the government and the help they have extended to the community within which they operate do not justify their failure to perform their obligations to the community, the land owners, and the government. Their creditors may come up together to make their demands for the money owed (Azapagic, 2004 p639). There are many other risks that the company may have of which it takes advantage as it is the only monopoly in the organization hence enjoying all the benefits. The government may open another mine that will act as competition to the KGC Ltd PNG Company. There are many consequences that the organization may suffer and face in a position they were to lose the legitimacy. First, their end of tenure in the land may land them in an expected trouble as the landowners may kick them out of their property (Arya Zhang, 2009 p1089). Such an action may affect them in that they may have no other option to do their mining as the place has higher returns although they have not paid the dues that they owe to the others. The dragging of court cases may have further negative effects as they have to pay the court fees and processing fees against the government, the landowners, and the environmentalists. The loss may also affect their future projections as the management has the hope that within some few years to come, there would be large deposits of large deposits of silver and lead ores which may attract a large profit for the company. Such actions may have negative effects on the management and performance of the organization (Solomon et al, 2008 p148). The presence of ores in the land or the adjacent lands may necessitate the need to operate and engage in more mining activities extending to the part of the land. Loss of their legitimacy may make them lose on both opportunities. A consequence on the organization translates to effects on the people in the area. It is evident that the loves of the people around are directly related to the performance of the organization. The risks they face are directly felt by the people within the PNG area. There is hope for the company in restoration of their legitimacy and they can continue their normal operations and the way they conduct business. This may happen through taking the right steps towards rectifying the mistakes and cases that face the company at the courts. The stakeholders may approach the bank and asking for an extension through which they can request for more time within which they can repay the duties and royalties that they owe to all their creditors (Scott, 2014 p45). This may restore the confidence of the people within the area as they will have more trust in the organization. First and foremost, they should revoke their comments in the court as such comments provoked the environmentalists and other social justice groups. They should take the quickest steps in ensuring that they pay the land owners what they owe them. They may also act on the sludge that they have released to the water bodies that the communities depend on. Since it may be impossible to retrieve the sludge in the water, they could start by purchasing water treatment options and treat the water due to the harmful things they have put in the water for planting and usage by the locals. This will help in creating some form of confidence in the people around (Amanatidou et al 2012 p208). |They could also help in bringing tapped water to the locals as a safer method of source of water if it is impossible to treat the water. Engaging in other activities that benefit the community will also put the ratings of the organization within the mind of the community and other stakeholders in the right aspect making it enjoy the same profits as it in the beginning. It may also restore the legitimacy through engaging the lawyers through whom the organization will solve the cases in the courts. The restoration may have effects of benefit to those related to the organization directly or indirectly. For instance, the employees are the immediate beneficial (Riahi, 2004 p67). Other stakeholder who may benefit from the restoration of the legitimacy of the organization is the major investors on the company. This will ensure that they get their regular incomes in term of the returns on their investments. This ensures that the organization can expand its activities due to the future projections that signify that there may be other ores that may have silver and lead making it expands its activities on the positive side. On the other hand, the government gets the biggest benefit from the legitimacy as the expansion in the activities of the organization lead to an increase in the amount of taxes that it receives from the organization. This becomes a regular source of income for the organization as its existence assures that tax arm of the government that they will remit their returns. There are many ways through which KGC LTD could record the cost of the harm associated with the sludge spill in its GPFS. It may opt to start with the treatment of the water to reduce the impact of the spill on the sea and the effect it has on the people around as well as the quality of life affected therein (Widmer et al, 2005 p436). On the other hand, it has to record the cost of the hard on their expenses side as they look for options that will rectify the mistake they have already done on the environment. They may also choose to record such costs as part of the responsibility they have towards the community terming it as donations. Such will reflect on the financial statements as donations as it has to record each movement of their money. An advantage of recording the cost of the harm as an expense will reflect in their accounts and during the auditors reports; they can trace back the amount of money spent in the costs through the receipts. Such will also serve as an incentive through which the management can explain on how they used such a large amount of the shareholders and stakeholders money on an activity through the whole community including the interest parties may have such information already. The disadvantage of such a choice is that the owners of the investment may feel cheated s they may rate this expense as a waste of resources since the organization had the choice of disposing their waste in the right way. 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